“I Just Want to Work Without Fear”

Summary

In Malawi, an estimated 134,636 people-approximately 0.8 percent of the population-have albinism, although stigma and underreporting likely mean the true number is higher. Albinism, a genetic condition characterized by reduced or absent melanin, commonly results in low vision and extreme sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation. Across sub-Saharan Africa, people with albinism are estimated to be up to 1,000 times more likely to develop skin cancer than the general population.

Deeply rooted myths, including beliefs that body parts possess magical powers or that sexual intercourse with a woman with albinism brings wealth or cures disease, have fueled killings, sexual violence, and abductions. In parts of Malawi, people with albinism are often referred to as "money," reflecting the belief that their bodies or body parts can be sold for profit. This language reinforces their dehumanization and contributes to a climate of fear and insecurity. As Patricia, a survivor of two attacks, said: "I still carry the fear that at any moment I can be attacked again."

Although reported attacks have declined in recent years, the legacy of violence continues to shape everyday life. Many people with albinism limit their movement, avoid isolated areas, and often forgo what few work opportunities are available to them due to fear. This insecurity restricts access to work and incomes, particularly in rural areas where work often requires travel or outdoor labor.

This joint report examines discrimination in employment as one of the most visible ways stigma affects people with albinism, and how violence, insecurity, and barriers across work, education, health, and social security undermine rights, income security, and equal participation.

Exclusion begins early. Children with albinism have faced bullying, inaccessible examinations, and lack of accommodations, including large-print materials and adequate classroom support. While some progress has been made-such as the provision of large-print materials for national examinations-accommodations remain inconsistent or absent in everyday learning. During periods of targeted attacks, some families have kept children at home for safety. These barriers contribute to high dropout rates and limit access to further education and formal employment.

As adults, many people with albinism face persistent discrimination in hiring and employment. In urban areas, interviewees described being rejected after interviewers saw their appearance, subjected them to assumptions about incapacity, or excluded them based on unfounded concerns about liability. Employers frequently fail to provide reasonable accommodation to ensure occupational health and safety, including accessible materials, flexible schedules, or basic sun protection. Some also avoid hiring persons with albinism due to perceived additional costs. As Rose, a 47-year-old office manager, described her experience: "When you send in your application, they don't know you have albinism. When you show up for the interview, facial expressions tell you everything.… When I walked into the boardroom, I heard gasps." She did not get the job.

In rural areas, where formal employment opportunities are limited, many are pushed into informal, low-paying labor-often outdoors and without adequate protective measures. Prolonged sun exposure significantly increases the risk of skin cancer and chronic skin damage, which in turn undermines their ability to continue working and earning an income. Despite being at greater risk of chronic health issues, several interviewees described being forced to abandon their work due to illness or on the contrary, forced to continue working despite serious health conditions because of economic necessity. In one case, an individual reported discontinuing medical treatment for cancer in part to continue earning an income to support her children.

Barriers to social security further compound these challenges. Despite widespread poverty, few interviewees reported receiving social cash transfers or agricultural subsidies. Many described exclusion at the community level, where local leaders control beneficiary selection. Some attributed their exclusion to the misconception that persons with albinism already receive sufficient support from the government or organizations. As a result, individuals and families experiencing severe food insecurity remain without assistance.

Women and girls with albinism face compounded discrimination at the intersection of gender, disability, and albinism. Gendered myths and stigma about albinism heighten their risk of sexual violence, harassment, and exploitation in exchange for help in obtaining employment. These harms disrupt education, undermine mental health, and deter participation in public life and work. For women and girls with albinism, fear of attacks, including gender-specific threats, limits mobility and safe, physical access to workplaces, narrowing opportunities for stable employment and income generation.

Beyond barriers to the right to work, many women with albinism, who often already bear sole responsibility for caregiving and domestic labor, also experience social stigma within marriage, including abandonment, discrimination by partners or in-laws, and reduced decision-making power within the household. Exclusion from formal employment and limited access to social-protection schemes leave many women financially dependent on spouses or family members, making it harder to leave abusive situations and support their children. This deepens their poverty and dependence.

These overlapping barriers reinforce a cycle of marginalization: Educational exclusion limits employment; unsafe or informal work exacerbates health risks; untreated or preventable health conditions further restrict earning capacity; and stigma compounds isolation. Many interviewees described persistent fear, stress, and anxiety linked to discrimination and the insecurity arising from violations of their right to education, work, and health.

Malawi's legal framework is strong on paper. The Constitution prohibits discrimination, and the 2024 Persons with Disabilities Act guarantees non-discrimination in employment, reasonable accommodation, equal pay for work of equal value, and inclusive workplaces. The 2025 National Disability Policy recognizes persons with albinism as a marginalized group requiring targeted measures. However, implementation remains weak. Regulations have not been fully operationalized and enforcement mechanisms are limited; funding for the Disability Trust Fund is constrained. Weak coordination, low awareness among employers and officials, and insufficient resources undermine progress.

Equal access to employment, safe and fair working conditions, and social security are human rights obligations, and should be treated as such. Implementing existing laws, ensuring reasonable accommodation in education and work, expanding access to social protection, and addressing stigma and insecurity are essential. International experience demonstrates that affirmative measures-such as targeted recruitment and fiscal incentives-can expand employment opportunities when paired with enforcement and monitoring.

People with albinism are entitled not only to safe and healthy working conditions, fair compensation, reasonable working hours, and dignified treatment on an equal basis with others, but also to full belonging in their communities-as equal participants in social, economic, and public life. Moving from policy commitments to meaningful change will require sustained political will, adequate financing, effective implementation and enforcement of existing laws, accessible complaint and justice mechanisms, multisectoral coordination, and the meaningful participation of persons with albinism in decision-making.

Key Recommendations

• Promptly implement and adequately fund the revised draft National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA), with clear, time-bound targets, disaggregated indicators, and dedicated budget allocations. Ensure coordination across education, labor, and social protection sectors-and establish mechanisms for regular public reporting on progress.

• Implement recommendations from the Malawi Human Rights Commission's 2026 Barrier Analysis Impeding on Socio-Economic Empowerment of Persons with Albinism in Malawi, including in health, education, employment, social protection, and access to justice.

• Issue implementing regulations under the Persons with Disabilities Act to operationalize legal protections and clarify obligations relating to reasonable accommodation and non-discrimination in employment, including accessible complaint and enforcement mechanisms.

• Adopt affirmative employment measures and employer incentives to expand access to dignified work.

• Scale up inclusive education and vocational training, including accessible materials, assistive devices, teacher training, and targeted financial support.

Methodology

Between October 2025 and April 2026, Human Rights Watch interviewed 96 people in Malawi, including 80 people with albinism (35 women, 43 men and 2 boys) across the districts of Lilongwe, Dowa, Dedza, Mchinji, Mangochi, Machinga, Zomba, Blantyre, and Mulanje. Human Rights Watch also interviewed 3 family members of persons with albinism, 6 representatives of civil society organizations, and 7 community police officers. Interviewees were identified with the assistance of the Association of Persons with Albinism in Malawi. The African Albinism Network also jointly conducted some interviews as part of the research.

During the same period, Human Rights Watch met with government officials, including representatives from the Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability and Social Welfare; the Department of Human Resource Management and Development; the Ministry of Labour, Skills and Innovation; the Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture; and the Malawi Human Rights Commission. On May 7, 2026, Human Rights Watch and the African Albinism Network presented preliminary findings and recommendations at a validation workshop of the National Disability Technical Working Group coordinated by the Ministry of Gender. Human Rights Watch also reviewed national legislation, policies, and reports produced by the government, academics, civil society, the United Nations, the World Bank, and other international institutions.

Researchers informed all interviewees of the purpose of the interview and how the information would be used. No remuneration or incentives were promised or provided to interviewees. All interviewees were asked to consent before the interview began and were told they could decline to answer questions and end the interview at any time. Interviews were conducted in person mostly in Chichewa and translated into English and with the help of an interpreter. Human Rights Watch assigned pseudonyms and withheld the names of interviewees at their request. All pseudonyms appear in quotation marks on first reference. Identifying information and distinctive case details have also been withheld to respect confidentiality and protect from possible reprisals.

Background

Malawi is among the lowest-income countries globally and continues to rank near the bottom in GDP per capita. Multidimensional poverty and food insecurity remain widespread. In 2021, the country was 169th out of 191 countries on the Human Development Index (HDI). Over the past two decades, the share of the population living below the national poverty line has remained extremely high, with 70 percent of its population living on less than US$2.15 a day. From 2023 to 2024, approximately 4.4 million people, or about 22 percent of the population, were estimated to be facing acute food insecurity.

The majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture for their subsistence and income. Unemployment and underemployment are widespread.

Within this broader context of the poor realization of economic, social, and cultural rights, people with albinism face unique barriers that drive their marginalization. The 2018 Population and Housing Census recorded approximately 134,600 persons with albinism-about 0.8 percent of the population-and found that nearly 88 percent reside in rural areas, where formal employment opportunities are particularly limited.

The World Bank has noted that Malawi's social structures generate heightened social risks, particularly for women and marginalized groups, and has identified persons with albinism as facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination based on gender, social identity, and socioeconomic status. Limited institutional capacity and constrained financial and human resources further weaken the state's ability to mitigate these risks.

Outside major cities, many people with albinism interviewed by Human Rights Watch described limited opportunities to generate income, particularly in rural areas where formal employment is scarce and livelihoods often depend on subsistence farming or informal labor to survive. They often lack access to resources to improve yield stability, including money, fertilizer, irrigation systems, or equipment, and work outdoors, often with prolonged exposure to the sun without adequate protective measures and with few alternatives. Discrimination in employment compounds these barriers, leaving many people with albinism with little income security.

Chinsisi Gama, a 30-year-old tailor from Dowa, in the central region, described her previous reliance on subsistence farming: "The climate is so hard for persons with albinism, especially women. I had to farm under the sun because I had kids to feed and had no choice."

Others described taking on physically demanding and risky informal work, exposing themselves to sunburn and security risks. "I bicycle to the border during the heat of the sun. I wear protective clothing, but I still get burns. I can't wait [for sundown]-this is the only way to make money for my family."

Employment Discrimination

In the context of widespread multidimensional poverty and limited formal employment opportunities, being denied work or treated unfairly in hiring, promotion, retention, pay, or working conditions carries especially severe consequences for people with albinism. Barriers to employment and work and lack of access to social security undermine the enjoyment of the rights to food, housing, work, and an adequate standard of living. By restricting economic independence, these factors undermine the ability of persons with albinism to live independently and participate fully in society.

The scale and patterns of this exclusion are reflected in available national data, although significant gaps remain. The 2026 draft National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA) acknowledges the scale of economic exclusion, noting that persons with albinism are "highly marginalized economically and have significantly lower rates of formal, stable income compared to the national average."

More broadly national data further show that persons with disabilities are generally less likely to be formally employed and more likely to work in insecure, low-income activities, including informal self-employment. While this is an important source of income, it is often characterized by low and unstable earnings, lack of access to social security and employment benefits, and limited opportunities for growth. Informal workers also often face high occupational safety and health risks while remaining largely invisible to regulatory systems, so injuries and illnesses often go unprevented, unrecorded, and uncompensated, with costs shifted to those workers and their families rather than being addressed through formal occupational health and safety systems.

According to data from the 2018 disability report, persons with disabilities have lower labor force participation rates (62.4 percent compared with 72.1 percent for people without disabilities) and lower employment rates (54.0 percent compared with 58.7 percent). While these differences may appear modest, they mask deeper inequalities, including exclusion from stable, adequately paid, and formal employment opportunities. For persons with albinism, these disparities are compounded by stigma, exclusionary workplace practices, and discriminatory assumptions about their capability and appearance. At the same time, civil society organizations and government actors noted the lack of reliable, disaggregated data on the employment of persons with disabilities, including persons with albinism, limiting the ability to fully assess and address these disparities.

Despite national and international commitments to equality and non-discrimination, evidence from public institutions, civil society, and interviews conducted by Human Rights Watch indicates that employment discrimination against persons with albinism is persistent and points to a pattern of systemic discrimination.

Under international human rights law, including the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), discrimination on the basis of disability includes any distinction, exclusion, or restriction that has the "purpose or effect of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise" of rights on an equal basis with others. This includes both direct discrimination, such as refusing to hire a person because they have albinism, and indirect discrimination, where policies or practices that appear neutral disproportionately disadvantage persons with albinism in practice. Disability discrimination also includes the denial of reasonable accommodation, meaning necessary and appropriate modifications or adjustments needed to ensure equal access to rights on an equal basis with others. Excluding persons with albinism from jobs based on assumptions about their abilities, safety, or potential liability, rather than an individualized assessment and reasonable accommodation, is discriminatory.

The Malawi Human Rights Commission (MHRC) has documented persistent exclusion from employment and entrepreneurship opportunities. An MHRC study identified entrenched negative perceptions and employer bias, with persons with albinism frequently viewed as less capable or less productive, particularly in the formal labor market. These findings are reinforced by national disability rights organizations, including the Federation of Disability Organizations in Malawi (FEDOMA) and the Association of Persons with Albinism in Malawi (APAM), which highlighted persistent negative employer attitudes, lack of enforcement of legal protections, and the routine denial of reasonable accommodation as key barriers to employment. Together, these sources point to a pattern of weak implementation of existing legal and policy frameworks and the absence of effective accountability mechanisms.

These national findings are consistent with global patterns documented by the UN Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism, who has documented persistent discrimination in hiring and workplace practices, including exclusions based on misconceptions about capacity, confinement to limited sectors, and the failure of employers and states to provide reasonable accommodation, contributing to entrenched poverty and exclusion.

Interviews conducted by Human Rights Watch provide further insight into how these dynamics operate in practice. Interviewees described persistent discrimination in hiring and workplace environments, including being perceived as physically fragile, incapable of performing certain tasks, or as liabilities to employers-particularly in roles involving outdoor labor or public interaction. Discrimination in hiring, promotion, and workplace interactions can create hostile work environments including through stigma, mockery, exclusion from public-facing roles, or assumptions about fragility or incapacity. Such environments interfere with equal participation, job security, and career advancement.

Rabecca Pengani, 25, described being asked to leave a job interview in Blantyre in 2018 after her appearance revealed she had albinism:

"When I walked into the interview room, the interviewers looked shocked and stared at each other. They asked me what I was doing here. I told them I was called for an interview and told them my name. I heard one whisper to the other, 'we have made a mistake,' and told me that I must leave.… Before boarding the bus home, I broke down and cried."

Similar experiences were reported by others.

Rose M., a 47-year-old office manager in Dowa, recalled her experience applying for jobs:

"When you send in your application, they don't know you have albinism. When you show up for the interview, the facial expressions tell you everything. When I walked into the boardroom, I heard gasps. They look surprised, and you know right away this will not be a conducive work environment."

While seeking work in the hospitality sector, Rose, who trained in hotel management, was barred from public-facing roles. "They never put me at reception or in the restaurant. They kept me away from the public eye because they thought customers wouldn't like us-that we would 'tarnish the hotel's reputation.'"

A human resources manager in Lilongwe, described discriminatory deliberations during government recruitment for cleaning jobs at a hospital: "Some committee members said the candidate with albinism might catch infections more easily, and others were uncomfortable about patients interacting with him. I tried to challenge these views, but I was junior at the time and didn't have much influence."

Many accounts reflected a broader pattern of exclusion rooted in assumptions about incapacity, absenteeism, or risk. "Maya," 21, described discriminatory and inappropriate questioning during a job interview for an accounting role in 2025: "After telling me about their leave days policy, they asked me, 'How often do you have to go to the hospital for check-ups?'… I didn't get the job."

Robert Banda, a 40-year-old man from Lilongwe, has repeatedly faced discrimination during job searches. At an upscale hotel where he applied for a cleaning position, interviewers questioned whether he was physically capable of climbing ladders to wash windows. In another case, after passing two interviews for a security job, he overheard staff dismissing him because of his eyesight and skin, claiming he could not work outdoors. Despite these experiences, Robert later worked successfully for ten years in a security-related role at another company, where he was well regarded by colleagues. He eventually resigned due to low pay.

"Mtendere," a 24-year-old woman from Mchinji district, also in the central region, has repeatedly faced discrimination when seeking employment, including because of the misconception that people with albinism are eligible for government benefits. In 2024, she applied for work at a commercial farm and was told by a manager, "Why are you here? You are already rich. Get the government to give you more money. We would rather employ someone who needs it." When she sells sugarcane at the market, customers and vendors tell her she should stay at home, and they make fun of her appearance. She said parents encourage their children to shout insults at her, including comments about her skin burning in the sun. In January 2025, she was turned away from another farm and told to "go home, because if we hired you and you [are injured], we will be held liable."

"Taweni," a police officer working in Lilongwe's Victim Support Unit, spent five years searching for work before joining the police. When she applied for a waitress job, the restaurant owner rejected her application, stating that she could not do the job "because of the way you are." The experience left her demoralized and socially withdrawn. On the day of her police graduation, a man in the crowd shouted, "She is also one of them [police graduates]? Things have become so backward in the country now. How can she be employed as a police officer, can she even apprehend a suspect?" making her mother, who was attending the ceremony, weep.

Other people with albinism also told Human Rights Watch that employers expressed reluctance to hire, citing concerns about legal liability if harm were to occur. While these concerns appeared frequently in interviews, they are not grounded in Malawian law. Employers reportedly claimed they could be blamed if something happened to a worker with albinism, particularly in outdoor or high-visibility roles. At the same time, many people with albinism interviewed were not aware of the legal protections available to them or which institutions they could approach for assistance in resolving labor-related disputes, further limiting their ability to challenge discrimination.

Dorica Bauleni, 45, said that when seeking domestic work in 2019, a prospective employer refused to hire her, stating: "I can't give you a house job because of what is happening to people with albinism. If something happens to you, I will be held responsible."

Vincent Dzenje, 28, similarly described being denied farming work in 2025 based on perceived liability concerns: "The employer immediately hired my friends … who told me later the employer said, 'We can't hire people like him because he could get us in trouble with the police if something happened to him.' … I continue to think of it, and it continues to pain me."

David Issa, 50, from Mangochi district said: "The biggest challenge in finding work is how I'm perceived by potential employers who are worried about liability if someone abducts or hurts me."

Others described being excluded from entire sectors of employment, based on assumptions about their safety or capacity. Andrick Tito, 43, from Zomba, recounted being denied casual labor on a sugar plantation in Chikwawa:

We were told to stand in line to be picked … I was perhaps the 10th person in line when I was told to stand aside because the manager did not want 'someone like me' to be working in the sugar cane fields, in the sun. They said the work was 'hard labor' that wasn't for me.

"Azibo," 24, from Mchinji district said he went to apply for a construction job in 2023 and was told, "We can't hire you because you are more susceptible to getting hurt as a person with albinism."In September 2025, he went to find work farming on a field and was told:

'Why do you want to get a job from here? If something happens [workplace injury] to you, the police will come after us because the government said people with albinism can't work under the sun.' I defended myself and said that the government never said that, and it's not true, we can work under the sun. But they did not relent.

While prolonged exposure to the sun can pose health risks for persons with albinism, excluding them from employment on this basis, without assessing individual circumstances or providing reasonable accommodation, reflects a paternalistic and discriminatory approach. Rather than taking steps to mitigate risk, such as adjusting working hours, providing protective clothing, sunscreen, or alternative tasks, employers in these cases denied individuals the opportunity to work. Such blanket exclusions are based on assumptions about vulnerability and liability, rather than on the rights of persons with albinism to make informed choices about their work and to access employment on an equal basis with others.

Malawian law does not prohibit persons with albinism from working outdoors, nor does it impose heightened liability on employers solely because an employee has albinism. Refusing to hire someone on the basis of disability due to speculative liability concerns may itself constitute unlawful discrimination under the 2024 Persons with Disabilities Act, which prohibits discrimination in hiring and requires reasonable accommodation.

Workplace discrimination also led some to leave jobs they had secured. Brenda Mphonde, 29, said she left a teaching assistant position after one year due to harassment from parents: "They would say things like 'she won't be able to properly mark students,'… and 'she'll take a long time transferring what she can on the board.'"

Self-Employment and Income Insecurity

While self-employment provides an important source of income for many persons with albinism, it often reflects social and economic exclusion from formal employment and is shaped by structural constraints, including stigma, limited access to capital, and precarious working conditions. These barriers are compounded by widespread stigma and harmful beliefs about albinism within communities, which can hinder the ability of self-employed persons with albinism to form business partnerships, obtain capital, and attract customers, according to the UN Independent Expert on Albinism.

Since 2023, Maureen Kamatu, a 28-year-old woman with albinism, has been self-employed at a mobile money cash-transfer booth in Lilongwe, handling both cash and electronic transfers and earning small commissions on each transaction. To supplement her income, she also fries and sells fritters at the booth. When she first started the business, she faced open discrimination from customers and neighboring vendors. She said:

Passersby often said derogatory things about me as a person with albinism. I heard things like, 'Is she going to be able to see well? Is she going to be able to count the money? Are you sure she can do this job?'

Smart Vinti, 29, a graphic designer in Blantyre, described how clients' perceptions shifted once they saw him in person: "People are happy to contact me when they see my artwork, without seeing me. The moment they meet me … they immediately have second thoughts, and they begin to doubt my capabilities."

He said that in 2023, a client commissioning a signpost questioned whether he would be able to complete the work outdoors and refused to provide a deposit, citing concerns about his ability.

Others reported losing customers due to stigma. In Malawi, some harmful myths persist that albinism is contagious or can be transmitted through touch or ordinary social interaction. Kumbukani K., 30, who sells maize at a market, said: "Some people refused buying from me because of my albinism … [Once] I heard a customer's friend say, 'As for me, I can't buy and eat maize that's been touched by a person with albinism.'"

Stigma, Harassment, and Hate Speech

Almost all interviewees described experiencing verbal abuse. Such harassment often occurs in public spaces, including marketplaces and workplaces, reinforcing exclusion and insecurity.

Mphatso C., 19, a mother of a one-year-old child, said:

In the community I've been called many things, including 'not human,' 'where do you come from?' and 'stupid.' I walk in the community with fear. If they say these things to my face, what do they hold in their heart against me? I don't know what else they will do to me.… I am afraid that I might be attacked, beaten up, or even killed. The fear keeps my movements close to home. I feel anxious when I go further. I just want to work without fear.

"Azibo" described a night shift in June 2025 packing and loading maize onto a truck in Lilongwe:

I heard people actively calling me 'money' that they would get after killing me. My heart was filled with anger, but I couldn't show it. I was afraid and pretended it never happened.

He said the persistent lack of understanding about albinism leaves him feeling sad and exhausted from constantly educating others. "I'm always teaching friends and others about albinism and reminding them that we are the same as everyone else. It's a lot for me."

Pejorative and other demeaning language reinforces discriminatory attitudes. In employment settings, this can create a hostile work environment. In all contexts, such language may lay the groundwork for more overt attacks. Derogatory terms reinforce myths and stereotypes that dehumanize persons with albinism, fostering discrimination and social exclusion. As the UN Independent Expert on Albinism has noted, such speech can fuel hostility and, where it meets the threshold of incitement to violence, must be prohibited in line with international human rights standards.

Wysin James, 25, described being subjected to derogatory language while fishing in 2023. During a price negotiation, a customer insulted him using the term "Napweri," a stigmatizing slur, and said: "Your kind is hard to reason with, I will take my business elsewhere."

Agnes M., 25, also described prejudice rooted in misinformation: "There are a lot of people who assume that if they come in contact with [persons with albinism], it would transfer to them … most of them are not open to employing us."

William Katopola, 66, said such attitudes reflect deeper dehumanization. "Society discriminates against persons with disabilities … they treat us as if we are not fully human-we are a lesser human being, and this affects our employment prospects."

In employment settings, such hostility can create unsafe or hostile environments and deter people with albinism from seeking work in certain sectors or communities. Lucy Saiti, 30, a married mother with albinism, said while looking for work, people told her she was a "white person without any money."

Malawi's police have taken steps to prosecute some instances of pejorative abuse. Authorities have publicly warned that those who insult or intimidate persons with albinism may face arrest and prosecution. In one case, a 30-year-old man who referred to a one-year-old child with albinism as "money" was charged with conduct likely to cause a breach of the peace.

Despite these measures, psychosocial support for survivors remains limited. The Ministry of Gender has acknowledged that while physical security measures have improved, mental health and trauma support services do not yet fully meet the needs of victims and their families. This gap has also been identified by the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which, following a fact-finding mission to Malawi, noted the need for psychosocial support for survivors and for those living in fear of attacks, as well as for the meaningful participation of children with albinism in decisions affecting them.

Legal and Policy Framework and Implementation Gaps

Malawi has adopted constitutional, legislative, and policy commitments relevant to the employment rights of persons with disabilities and persons with albinism.

The 1994 Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of "race, color, disability, or other status" and guarantees equality of opportunity in access to education, employment, health services, and development. Malawi is a state party to the Convention on the Rights of Person with Disabilities (CRPD) having ratified the convention in 2009. The CRPD requires States to ensure non-discrimination, reasonable accommodation, and equal opportunity in employment and education for persons with disabilities. Under article 27 of the CRPD, Malawi is obligated to safeguard the right to work for persons with disabilities on an equal basis with others, including protection against discrimination in recruitment, hiring, and employment conditions. These obligations are reinforced by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which guarantees the right to work (article 6) and just and favorable conditions of work (article 7), as well as by regional human rights standards such as article 15 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights. The state also has obligations under the CRPD to ensure access to education (article 24), health (article 25), and freedom from violence and exploitation (article 16) and social security (article 28).

Malawi's 2000 Employment Act prohibits discrimination against employees and prospective employees on various grounds, including disability, in recruitment, training, promotion, terms and conditions of employment, and other aspects of employment. However, it does not include an explicit obligation to provide reasonable accommodation.

Malawi Vision 2063, the government's long-term national development strategy, commits to increasing wealth, equity, and self-sufficiency, and states that private sector participation shall not discriminate against older persons, youth, women, and persons with disabilities. While Vision 2063 is primarily a policy and development framework rather than a legally binding instrument, it sets out the government's stated priorities and commitments for inclusive economic development.

In 2024, Malawi enacted the Persons with Disabilities Act, a landmark law consolidating earlier statutes and aligning with Vision 2063 and international obligations. Although not all persons with albinism identify as persons with disabilities, Malawian law and policy frameworks treat persons with albinism as falling within disability protections.

Section 27 of the Persons with Disabilities Act affirms the right of persons with disabilities to be free from discrimination in all aspects of employment, including recruitment, retention, career advancement, and safe and healthy working conditions.

The Act also mandates reasonable accommodation, guarantees equal pay for work of equal value, prohibits harassment by co-workers, and affirms trade union rights. It emphasizes the creation of "open, inclusive and accessible" workplaces. The law also establishes a Disability Trust Fund, intended to support programs and services benefiting persons with disabilities. In the 2026-27 national budget, the government allocated K2.0 billion (US$1.2 million) to the Fund, including K250 million earmarked for grants to persons with disabilities.

Despite this strengthened legal framework, implementation remains limited. Senior officials in the Ministry of Labor that met with Human Rights Watch on April 7, 2026, indicated that the government is undertaking a review of labor laws, and plans to include a dedicated section on disability within the Employment Act. Officials acknowledged that existing legislation does not sufficiently address the specific needs and rights of persons with disabilities. They also reported that labor inspection tools have recently been revised to incorporate more disability-inclusive considerations.

At the same time gaps persist. Senior government officials interviewed by Human Rights Watch in April 2026, including those with responsibility for employment policy and workplace protections, were unaware of the Persons with Disabilities Act or its key provisions. The Malawi Human Rights Commission has found that implementation of the Act has been slow, reflecting gaps in political will, resourcing, and institutional coordination. Implementing regulations have not been adopted, and no targeted recruitment or affirmative action measures have been introduced. The Disability Trust Fund depends on parliamentary appropriations and voluntary donations and lacks guaranteed funding. The Trust Fund, which began disbursing only in 2023, remains wholly dependent on state allocations, with no external donor support, constraining its reach and sustainability.

In February 2025, Malawi adopted a new National Disability Policy (NDP), which identifies priority areas including education, health, economic empowerment, and access to justice; assigns institutional responsibilities; and includes an implementation plan and monitoring framework. It explicitly recognizes persons with albinism as a marginalized group requiring targeted measures. As with previous strategies, however, its effectiveness will depend on sustained financing and political commitment.

Malawi has also developed a strengthened National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA), which has been approved in principle and is expected to be formally released in June 2026. The draft includes a focus on economic empowerment and inclusion, recognizing poverty as both a driver and consequence of discrimination against persons with albinism, particularly women and youth. It identifies barriers including discrimination in hiring, unsafe and non-inclusive workplaces, and limited access to capital and social protection.

Under this priority, the draft plan outlines measures to: expand inclusive vocational training, digital literacy, and entrepreneurship programs tailored to persons with albinism; improve access to gender-responsive financial services and livelihood capital, including microfinance and village savings schemes; strengthen inclusion in social protection programs, particularly for women and older persons with albinism; and promote affirmative employment measures, including public sector recruitment initiatives, and incentives for private sector employers. The plan reflects input from organizations of persons with albinism and civil society groups, including Human Rights Watch, and signals a shift toward more concrete and targeted measures. Its effectiveness, however, will depend on implementation, resourcing, and enforcement.

Previous policy efforts reveal persistent implementation challenges. The previous 2018-2022 NAPPA included commitments relating to protection, education, and health. However, it offered little on employment rights, relying on vague commitments such as "lobbying with employers" without binding targets on recruitment. The Malawi Human Rights Commission found that weak coordination, insufficient funding, limited decentralization, inactive technical committees, and limited participation of persons with albinism undermined its effectiveness.

International treaty bodies have echoed these concerns. In its 2023 review, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities welcomed legislative reforms but expressed concern about weak implementation, persistent negative employer attitudes, limited access to education and vocational training, inadequate participation of organizations of persons with disabilities in policymaking, and the absence of reliable disaggregated data. It urged Malawi to strengthen labor law protections, expand access to employment in the open labor market, ensure meaningful consultation with organizations of persons with disabilities, combat stigma through employer awareness initiatives, and improve data collection.

In 2023, the Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women expressed concern about the limited access to education and high unemployment among women with disabilities as well as their exclusion from economic policymaking processes.

In 2024, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights similarly raised concerns about high levels of unemployment and underemployment, particularly among women, young people, and persons with disabilities. It called on Malawi to adopt a comprehensive labor strategy with a time-bound action plan to expand access to decent work, including through targeted vocational training, improved data collection, and affirmative action measures such as targeted recruitment or incentives for employers.

Structural Drivers Undermining the Right to Work and Income Security

Employment discrimination does not occur in isolation. It is shaped and reinforced by structural drivers, including violence, lack of access to social security, barriers to education and health, and intersectional discrimination.

Fear of Violence and Physical Insecurity

In Malawi and several other countries in the region, longstanding myths hold that the body parts of persons with albinism can bring wealth, good fortune, or political success when used in ritual practices. As a result, persons with albinism are often referred to as "money"-a dehumanizing term reflecting the belief that they can be killed, abducted, or harmed for financial gain. The term is used in everyday interactions, including in comments directed at individuals with albinism in public spaces. "Mariam," a 19-year-old woman from Machinga, said: "We are called ndalama (money) because at the time of the attacks, lots of people with albinism were being killed and their body parts sold. So when I walk in the street, I still see people pointing and saying, 'There goes money.'"

This language reduces individuals to commodities and is directly linked to violent attacks, grave desecrations, and trafficking in body parts. According to the Ministry of Gender, the government registered 223 cases of human rights violations against persons with albinism between 2013 and 2025. Of these, 147 cases were recorded between 2013 and 2017, and 76 cases between 2018 and 2025. The government attributed the decline in registered cases in recent years to improved policing, awareness campaigns, and greater collaboration between law enforcement and the justice sector.

However, legal proceedings have been slow. As of 2024, of more than 200 registered cases, only about 80 had been completed, with many others still under investigation or pending before the courts.

In response to the wave of attacks in the mid-2010s, Malawi adopted the previous National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA), focusing on security and protection, strengthening legal and policy frameworks, and improving access to social services. Since July 2019, the government has allocated funding for albinism-related activities through the national budget, amounting to MWK 1.94 billion (approximately US$1.1 million) between 2018 and 2025. An additional MWK 3.2 billion (approximately US$1.94 million) has been allocated for the construction of secure housing for low-income persons with albinism. To date, approximately 67 houses have been built, benefiting more than 100 people.

The ministry reported that policing structures have been expanded nationwide. The Malawi Police Service maintains tens of thousands of community policing structures and community crime prevention committees. Authorities have also conducted multimedia and community awareness campaigns and targeted outreach in high-risk areas.

However, the Committee on the Rights of People with Disabilities has expressed concern that persons with albinism "continue to experience violent attacks," and that Malawi's previous NAPPA was not effectively implemented or resourced, limiting its effectiveness in protecting the right to life of persons with albinism. It urged Malawi to adopt a new plan in close consultation with persons with albinism, including women and children, and to allocate adequate resources.

In January 2026, the Association of Persons with Albinism in Malawi raised concerns about a renewed surge in attacks, including abductions and repeated grave desecrations, warning this threatens the safety, dignity, and lives of persons with albinism. In March 2026, the Committee on Enforced Disappearances raised concerns regarding measures to prevent the disappearance of persons with albinism and the establishment of registers on enforced disappearance. While noting that Malawi had established victim support services in police stations, the committee questioned what steps the government was taking to ensure prompt and effective investigations into reported disappearances of persons with albinism. Young children continue to be targeted. In November 2022, a 3-year-old girl with albinism was killed, and her arm chopped off and stolen. Earlier that month, attackers attempted to abduct a 2-year-old boy.

Fear of abduction and targeted violence remains widespread and continues to shape mobility and public participation, employment decisions, and mental health. Many people with albinism avoid traveling at night or working in isolated or informal settings.

Wysin James, 25-year-old man from Machinga, who farms and fishes, described how fear affects his ability to carry out basic livelihood activities. He said:

I am fearful when I go fishing because I have to go long distances, through a thicket, and I don't know what awaits me … I'm afraid I might be attacked because I have albinism. We still live in pain because of the atrocities that happened. That trauma still lingers, and we don't have a good quality of life without security.

Vincent Dzenje, 28-year-old man also from Machinga, described how past threats and ongoing insecurity limit his movement and economic activity. In 2020, police warned him of a plan to abduct him or members of his family. He said:

I avoided walking altogether at the time. Even now I don't feel ok to go alone to the farm.… If a person is feeling threatened or lives in fear, they can't be in a position to start a business and move around.… Some days I want to go to the farm, but I don't see anyone on the road, I don't go because if something happened to me no one would hear my cries for help.

Patricia J., a 26-year-old woman from Dedza, survived two attacks: one at school and one in a market. In 2015, when Patricia was 16 and in secondary school, two men from her community attempted to abduct her while she was using an outdoor school bathroom. They mocked her for having albinism and low vision, calling her "money" and "someone who is incapable of looking up to the sky." A teacher intervened, and the men fled. Although community members later reported the incident to the police, no action was taken.

She completed Grade 12 and later trained as a tailor, running a small clothing and alterations business from outside her home between 2019 and 2023. Although the work allowed her to earn an income, it strained her eyesight, and a doctor advised her to stop. She later found work as a hospital attendant, cleaning wards, transporting specimens, and collecting medicines for patients.

In July 2023, Patricia was attacked again, this time in a crowded market. She said a man she didn't know approached her from behind, slapped and punched her repeatedly, kicked her to the ground, and shouted that he had been "looking for her." He called her derogatory names. She sustained facial injuries and ongoing chest pain that now prevents her from carrying heavy loads. Although the attacker was briefly arrested, he was released on bail without her knowledge, and she said the case has not proceeded.

The cumulative impact of these attacks on her mental health has been severe. Patricia described persistent fear, anxiety, and intrusive memories that affect her daily life and ability to look for work. "I look back at both attacks and ask, 'Why me?'" she said. "I have lingering trauma, still carrying the fear that at any moment I can be attacked again. I can't shake the thought, especially when I'm in a new place."

Out of concern for her safety, Patricia now avoids informal or unregulated workplaces such as markets and roadside stalls. She limits her job search to well-known, traceable establishments where she believes help would come quickly if something happened. This has significantly narrowed her employment options. Currently unemployed, Patricia and her husband, who works as a welder, sometimes struggle to pay for food. She has not received any government cash assistance or benefits.

Others also described modifying daily routines and limiting income-generating activities due to fear. "Mphatso," 37, who engages in small-scale farming, said she only works her field when accompanied and restricts her time there. "Even if I'm with someone, they won't be able to prevent an attack, so I limit my time there." She said she is not actively seeking employment because of fear of abduction.

Rose T., 32, linked her experience of violence directly to changes in her employment patterns. In 2018, while pregnant, she was assaulted by a man who referred to her as "money": "He beat me after saying, 'Oh here come money.'" Although the perpetrator was apprehended, the attack continues to affect her sense of safety. She no longer seeks work as a domestic worker as she did previously and now restricts her job searches to daylight hours: "I worry that someone might intercept me in the same way."

Others described adopting personal security measures. "Emmanuel," a 29-year-old mechanic, said: "When I travel for work, I always record where I'm going and whom I'm going to meet with and send it to my father [who is also his boss]-just in case."

Idrisa Yusugu lives in Lilongwe with his wife, Margret Ganizani, and their three children. He left school in Grade 10 after the death of an uncle who had been supporting his education. Finding work has been difficult, after he experienced serious dangers in previous jobs.

In 2021, Idrisa overheard two men discussing how they could attack him for "money." He reported the incident to community police, and the men were briefly arrested but later released on bail. The case never went to court. Weeks later, while working at a lodge where he was one of only two staff members, Idrisa said his co-worker told him that a customer attempted to determine which room he slept in and pressured the co-worker to "hand him over." The co-worker refused. Fearing for his life, Idrisa escaped and did not return to the lodge afterward.

The experience left Idrisa deeply traumatized and delayed his job search. He remains cautious in public spaces and unfamiliar workplaces. Still unemployed, Idrisa relies on his wife's informal jobs, such as washing clothes. Some days, the family goes without food. The pressure weighs heavily on him. "As the man of the house, I need to take care of my family," he said. "If my wife didn't understand, my marriage would have imploded." During the height of killings of people with albinism a decade earlier, others urged her to abandon Idrisa for her own safety. Margret did not leave. "This is my person," she told them. "I love him and will be with him until the day I die."

Fear is also reinforced by threats and intimidation, including toward family members. Elizabeth P., 34, said that in early 2025, a young man told her 6-year-old son: "You know that your mom is 'money'? One day, I will be rich after I kill your mom." She reported the incident to the police, but said the response was inadequate. "The police wrote a summons letter and gave it to the chief. But the young man ran away-they should have gone straight to the man."

Past violence and grave desecrations continue to have long-term psychological impacts. Agnes M., 25, said that after her younger sibling's grave was desecrated in 2014, she has lived with ongoing fear: "I cannot walk on empty roads … I avoid roads that look deserted, and I do not like walking alone … I make sure that nightfall does not catch me while I am out."

She added: "If people were capable of stealing her bones after such a long time, what more of me.… Wouldn't they make plans to attack me one day?"

Occupational Health and Safety and Reasonable Accommodations

Malawi has made some progress in improving access to sun protection for persons with albinism. Organizations such as Standing Voice and APAM have led initiatives to distribute high-SPF sunscreen, wide-brimmed hats, and protective clothing. Mobile clinics offering dermatological and optical screenings have also been established to reach remote communities, providing critical care to underserved populations.

The 2026 draft National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA) highlights the severity of health risks faced by persons with albinism, noting that the lack of melanin results in nearly universal visual disabilities and extreme vulnerability to skin cancer. It identifies premature mortality as a central concern and underscores that access to essential preventive measures, particularly sunscreen, remains inconsistent and is not yet integrated into the public health system as a guaranteed provision. The NAPPA further links these health risks to broader socio-economic exclusion. It notes that barriers in education contribute to high unemployment and poverty, trapping persons with albinism in a "cycle of dependency and vulnerability."

Occupational exposure significantly exacerbates these risks. Many people with albinism labor in informal and often outdoor conditions, including agriculture work, construction, fishing, and market trading, where they are exposed to intense ultraviolet radiation, extreme heat and inadequate protection.

Without appropriate preventive measures, repeated exposure to ultraviolet radiation can result in skin cancer, chronic burns, infections, and malignancies that negatively impact long-term health. In turn, these acute and chronic health effects can negatively impact their ability to earn income or engage in subsistence work. According to findings cited by the Malawi Human Rights Commission, a 2018 report by the Ministry of Health and Sanitation identified skin cancer as the leading cause of death among persons with albinism, with many dying before the age of 40 as a result of "preventable sun-related conditions."

Despite these well-documented risks, when people with albinism are employed, employers rarely provide accommodations to help mitigate health risks of work. Reasonable accommodations for persons with albinism may include sunscreen, protective clothing such as wide-brimmed hats, modified schedules to avoid peak sun hours, access to shaded workstations, assistive visual devices, and adjustments to lighting and printed materials. In line with international disability rights standards, reasonable accommodation should be individualized and developed in consultation with the affected person. Employers should engage directly with employees with albinism to identify functional needs and appropriate adjustments, rather than relying on assumptions about capacity or risk. Failure to provide reasonable accommodation constitutes discrimination under international human rights law.

Interviewees said that employers frequently failed to provide protective gear, shaded areas, or flexible arrangements. As a result, many described chronic skin damage, pain, and vision-related barriers that directly affected their ability to work and support their families. Some also described employers' reluctance to hire persons with albinism based on perceived additional costs. "Francis," 28, said: "Employers have misconceptions, afraid to hire us because they think we will cost them more money since we need protective equipment, which is an additional cost."

Others described the denial of low-cost accommodations, particularly for low vision. Rabecca Pengani, 25, a primary school teacher who has been teaching since 2018, said that access to teaching materials remains a persistent challenge: "The teachers' guide is in small font.… I've asked for large print but the consistent response from the school is that it's expensive."

She said that at one school in 2023 she was told to wait for adjustments that were never made, and at another in 2024 she was again told that producing large-print materials would be too costly. She also noted that long-distance travel to work under the sun presents additional challenges.

Similarly, "Mtisunge," 38, said she receives no institutional support to access teaching materials: "I don't have accessible teaching materials.… My husband has to dictate to me what's written… so that I can prepare."

These accounts highlight how the failure to provide reasonable accommodation persists not only in hiring but also in ongoing employment.

"Mwayi," a 31-year-old nurse, said his public hospital in a rural area does not provide accommodations related to his low vision.

It's a challenge for me to read doctors' notes and prescriptions because of the small handwriting which I can't read. Most of the time I have to ask them to write bigger. Their initial reaction is harsh, but they understand after I explain. The hospital doesn't do this; I have to advocate for myself. The hospital doesn't have the knowledge.

Interviewees also described severe health consequences linked to prolonged occupational exposure.

Eliza D., a 20-year-old woman in Dedza district, said she has never been formally employed. She described farming as particularly difficult for persons with albinism. "The sun burns us when we work."

As a child helping in the fields, she suffered a severe sunburn on her left leg that did not heal. A visiting clinic referred her to a hospital in the capital, where she underwent surgery. "There was blood and pus-it was a severe burn. The pain was so severe that I couldn't walk before treatment."

She now limits farm work to early morning hours, typically between 5 and 7 a.m., and wears protective clothing including long pants, long sleeves, socks, and shoes.

"Chimwemwe," 56, who relies on farming and piecework to support her family, developed skin cancer in 2015 and underwent surgery. The cancer returned in 2022 and spread to the bone, making further surgery impossible. She discontinued chemotherapy in 2023 because of its physical toll and the need to continue working. "I had to start working … I needed to support my [five] children … I had no choice." She continues to engage in physically demanding agricultural work despite ongoing pain, explaining: "Farming is the only thing I can do."

Pillius Namakwa, 49, similarly attributed his current condition to prolonged sun exposure without protection: "I had no knowledge of sun protection and worked in the sun for long hours. Because of that I have skin cancer and am in palliative care." He said he can no longer work due to pain and bleeding from his wounds, leaving him without a source of income.

Kim Rasheed, 29, a former fisherman, said repeated sun exposure led to a skin cancer diagnosis that forced him to abandon his livelihood. He now avoids any work requiring extended periods in the sun. "Now I have more problems than before, when I could earn money. I feel hurt. I'm not capable of taking care of my kid as I would have loved to, as I used to."

These experiences reflect the broader link between occupational health risks and the right to work. When outdoor work becomes medically unsafe, income opportunities narrow sharply, especially in rural areas where alternatives are limited.

At the same time, many interviewees reported receiving sun hats and sunscreen through district hospitals or local programs, and researchers observed significant use of protective hats during field visits, suggesting progress from previous years. However, these measures remain insufficient and do not replace the need for systematic provision of preventative resources, stronger workplace protections, and expanded access to safer employment opportunities.

Lack of Access to Social Security

Social security is a human right and a key strategy for reducing poverty, addressing inequality, and promoting well-being.

The right to social security can be ensured through a range of programs, whether funded by direct contributions from workers and employers or through general taxation, that shield individuals from income insecurity, premised on the principle that everyone should enjoy their economic, social and cultural rights at every stage of their lives.

Social security can include disability benefits, family and child support, older age pensions, unemployment support, and other programs that ensure people can meet their rights to an adequate standard of living and live independently. It plays a critical role to ensure the realization of the rights for people who are marginalized, especially during periods without income. This is particularly important for people with albinism, who often face discrimination in employment and barriers to stable income, as well as additional disability-related costs, including for health care, assistive products, and protective clothing. Social security can mitigate the effects of unemployment and income instability.

However, in Malawi, gaps in coverage and accessibility often leave people with albinism without access to social security, affecting their enjoyment of a range of other human rights. According to the International Labour Organization, only 19.9 percent of the population had access to at least one form of social protection in 2022, the latest year for which data are available, with coverage significantly lower among people with disabilities, at just 8.9 percent.

Evidence from the Malawi Human Rights Commission (MHRC) indicates that people with albinism are frequently excluded from social protection programs, including cash transfers, disability benefits, and poverty alleviation schemes. This exclusion is partly due to the lack of consistent recognition of albinism as a condition qualifying for disability-related support. The MHRC's 2025 public inquiry found that limited understanding of albinism among social welfare officers contributes to flawed targeting and exclusion, while stigma discourages some individuals and families from seeking support, further restricting access.

Malawi's largest social cash transfer and social assistance program is the Social Cash Transfer Programme (SCTP), a non-contributory, tax- and donor-funded scheme aimed at reducing extreme poverty and hunger. It is the main mechanism through which low-income households access income support and operates separately from contributory schemes such as pensions or insurance. Transfer amounts vary by household size, ranging from approximately MK 2,600 to MK 5,600 per month (US$1.50-3.25) per household, with additional school attendance bonuses of MK 800-1,500. Initially piloted in Mchinji district in 2006, the program was later expanded nationwide and is implemented by the Ministry of Gender. Despite this expansion, coverage remains limited relative to the scale of poverty. The SCTP reaches roughly 370,000 households, or more than 1.8 million people. Given that over 50 percent of Malawi's population of approximately 21.7 million are living below the poverty line, many people in poverty remain outside the country's main social assistance program.

Eligibility is limited to households classified as both "ultra-poor" and "labor-constrained," using a combination of community-based targeting, proxy means testing and administrative verification. While these mechanisms are intended to improve targeting, they also create risks of exclusion, particularly where poverty is widespread and administrative capacity is limited. Reliance on community-based selection and household-level eligibility can obscure individual needs and expose applicants to bias, discretion, and stigma. Community-based selection may require identifying beneficiaries among households in similar economic circumstances, which can reinforce social tensions and expose individuals to favoritism or discrimination, particularly where local leaders exercise significant discretion. The use of the household as the unit of eligibility can also obscure intra-household inequalities, because resources are not necessarily shared equally among household members, limiting individuals' ability to independently access and control resources.

Proxy means tests (PMTs), which determine eligibility through proxy indicators of poverty such as housing conditions, assets, or household composition, have been widely criticized for producing high exclusion errors, particularly in countries with limited or outdated data. Their reliance on complex formulas and opaque scoring systems can also undermine transparency and trust in social security systems, leaving many people unclear as to why they were excluded.

Taken together, gaps in coverage and the design of targeting mechanisms undermine the objectives in Malawi's National Social Protection Policy, which identifies persons with disabilities as a priority group for targeted support and commits the State to ensuring equitable access to social assistance programs such as the SCTP. The policy emphasizes inclusion, non-discrimination, and the removal of barriers that prevent marginalized groups from accessing social protection. It also highlights community involvement and decentralized structures in beneficiary identification and targeting. While intended to strengthen local ownership and improve targeting, this approach relies on community-level implementation, which can introduce discretion in how eligibility criteria are applied.

The SCTP is heavily donor-dependent, with the government contributing approximately 5 percent of the budget and the remaining 95 percent financed by international donors, including the World Bank, Germany, the European Union, and Irish Aid. During an April 7, 2026 meeting with Human Rights Watch, officials from the Ministry of Gender stated that the Malawi government intended to increase its financial contribution to the program. While international cooperation plays an important role, heavy reliance on external financing can constrain the scale and sustainability of the program and limit government ownership. Malawi's investment in social protection remains limited, with social safety net expenditure reaching only 0.9 percent of GDP in 2023, below the sub-Saharan African average of 1.2 percent, restricting the government's ability to expand coverage and ensure long-term continuity, and progressively realize the right to social security using the maximum of available resources. The Draft 2026 National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism similarly notes that social protection programs are underfunded and often fail to reach the most at-risk populations, including persons with albinism.

A 2025 study by Development Pathways and Act Church of Sweden estimated that Malawi would need to invest 2.87 percent of its GDP to establish a comprehensive life course social security system, including 0.29 percent of GDP for disability benefits alone. The findings illustrate the scale of investment needed to expand adequate and inclusive social protection coverage. During an April 7, 2026, meeting with Human Rights Watch, the Ministry of Gender acknowledged that persons with disabilities, including persons with albinism, have lower access than the general population to social protection programs. Officials indicated that the SCTP is under review for 2026-2027, with a proposed shift toward categorical targeting. The revised model would require households to be both ultra-poor (approximately the bottom 10 percent) and part of a "marginalized group," such as persons with disabilities, older persons, or those with chronic illness. While intended to improve inclusion, the redesigned system is expected to operate on a limited scale due to financial constraints.

International human rights bodies have raised concerns about Malawi's social protection system. In its October 2024 concluding observations, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressed concern about the high proportion of workers in informal and agricultural sectors who lack labor protections and social security coverage, particularly women. The committee also highlighted the limited reach of social security programs, including disability-related support, urging the government to expand coverage to all people living in extreme poverty and to establish a social protection floor.

Exclusion in Practice

Only four of the 80 people interviewed by Human Rights Watch reported receiving social security through the STCP, and two had received one-time agricultural subsidies. Their accounts point to exclusion from the program despite clear economic insecurity. Several said they believed they had been excluded from beneficiary lists because of discrimination during community-level eligibility processes, where village leaders collect identification documents and compile beneficiary lists.

Ellen Banda, a tailor from Dowa, said:

I was not allowed to participate in the cash transfer because my community saw me as incapable. Government officials reach out to village chiefs, but they excluded people with albinism. The same thing happened for the fertilizer subsidy.

Robert Banda, a janitor in Lilongwe, described his experience accessing social cash transfers:

Local leaders facilitate social cash transfers and give them to people they know. I was never selected, not even once, and other people with albinism have had the same experience.

Some interviewees said exclusion was driven by a widespread misconception that persons with albinism already receive sufficient external support. Vincent Dzenje, 28, said:

There is a belief that people with albinism are provided for by organizations and government, and therefore they should not be selected for subsidies or social protection programs.

"Chisomo," 31, a single mother of three, described severe economic hardship compounded by exclusion from social protection. She said she has no job prospects and stopped looking for work. She lives with her parents and her three children in a single room, without running water, and experiences frequent food insecurity. She said: "Sometimes we go a whole day without eating … the kids also go hungry sometimes where there is no food." She said the family misses meals four to five times a month and relies on plain porridge when food is scarce. While food insecurity is widespread in Malawi, her situation indicates how persons with albinism living in poverty may remain excluded from social security despite clear need. Despite these conditions, she has not received a social cash transfer and said that when she raised the issue with her village chief in 2023, no action was taken.

Mary Gauti, 32, who holds a diploma in hospitality and graduated in 2020, also reported exclusion despite clear need. She has never secured employment and relies on family support. She described having to skip meals two to three times per month due to lack of food: "If I can't afford food one day, I convert flour into porridge. On other days I just skip dinner." She said she is unable to afford basic items such as vegetables.

Lazarus K., 38, a father of five, said he has never received a social cash transfer but did receive a one-time fertilizer subsidy in 2022:

The government promised loans to persons with disabilities, but I haven't seen anything. If I get a loan I will use it for farm materials, seeds, and a water pumping system to expand operations and to support my kids to continue school.

These accounts reflect broader concerns with targeted social security programs, which can reproduce local power dynamics, bias, and stigma. By relying on opaque and discretionary selection processes, such programs risk excluding marginalized groups, including persons with albinism, and failing to meet the core human rights standards of availability, accessibility, and non-discrimination.

Education and Vocational Training

Recent policy developments are beginning to address financial barriers to education in Malawi. Notably, the government introduced free public secondary education effective January 1, 2026, eliminating tuition fees and other user fees in public day secondary schools, as well as examination fees charged by the Malawi National Examination Board (MANEB). Interviews with persons with albinism indicate that school and examination fees had previously been a significant factor preventing them from continuing their education.

Government initiatives have also sought to improve access to education for students with albinism. Some students have been placed in boarding schools to enhance safety, particularly during periods of heightened attacks. Certain secondary school students receive financial assistance for school fees and learning materials. Authorities have introduced disability coding, including for students with albinism, to facilitate accommodations during national examinations. Large-print examination papers are available, although implementation has been inconsistent across examination centers.

Despite these measures, significant barriers remain. The 2026 draft National Action Plan recognizes that children with albinism are primary targets for abduction and related violence. It notes that fear of attacks force some families to keep children out of school, directly undermining their right to education. This aligns with findings from the Malawi Human Rights Commission, which documented how fear of abduction, ritual attacks, and harassment, on the way to school and in school, discourages attendance and contributes to early withdrawal. Interviewees similarly described bullying, social exclusion, and a lack of teacher intervention, reinforcing unsafe and exclusionary learning environments. Some interviewees with Human Rights Watch also reported having left school earlier than they wanted to because of safety concerns linked to attacks and abduction risks, reflecting the long-standing impact of insecurity on access to education. In this context, education for children with albinism is not only inaccessible, but often unsafe.

Structural barriers within the education system further limit access. The UN Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism has noted that cumulative barriers in education result in lower levels of formal qualifications and skills compared with peers without disabilities. Limited access to reasonable accommodation, particularly for low vision, further restricts access to skills development and vocational training, contributing to high levels of self-employment, often in the informal sector. The MHRC similarly identified systemic gaps including a shortage of specialist teachers, inadequate learning materials, and the absence of reasonable accommodation. Research has found that nearly three-quarters of children identified as having a visual disability in Malawi have albinism. Despite this, few schools have teachers trained in inclusive education or provide accessible learning materials such as large-print texts or magnifiers. According to the MHRC, UNICEF monitoring data indicate that in some districts fewer than 2 percent of primary classrooms have any form of inclusive education materials, severely limiting curriculum access for learners with visual disabilities. These gaps point to persistent underinvestment in inclusive education, including insufficient budget allocations for teacher training, assistive devices, and accessible learning materials.

Data illustrates a steep drop-off in educational attainment. According to Ministry of Education data cited by the MHRC, 1,273 students with albinism were enrolled in primary school in the 2025-2026 academic year, compared with 501 in secondary school and only 16 at the university level. While educational attrition increases at higher levels across Malawi's education system, interviewees described additional barriers affecting students with albinism, including financial constraints, lack of accommodations, and safety concerns.

Economic barriers remain pervasive. The MHRC found that many families of children with albinism, particularly in rural areas, face significant poverty and cannot afford school-related costs, including uniforms, learning materials, sunscreen, and assistive devices. While the introduction of free secondary education reduces some direct costs, it does not address essential indirect expenses.In practice, the absence of targeted financial support limits the impact of fee abolition policies. Poverty also contributes to child labor and early withdrawal from school, further compounding exclusion.

International human rights bodies have raised concerns about Malawi's approach to inclusive education. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressed concern about the absence of a comprehensive inclusive education policy and persistent stereotypes affecting students with disabilities, and recommended measures to increase enrollment and address high dropout rates. In 2023, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women highlighted limited access to education for girls and young women with disabilities, citing inaccessible infrastructure, insufficient trained teachers, inadequate materials, and a lack of assistive devices, and urged the government to allocate adequate human, technical, and financial resources to ensure inclusive and accessible education.

In Malawi, limited access to inclusive education has long constrained employment opportunities, particularly in the public sector, where formal qualifications are required. Interviews with persons with albinism illustrate how these barriers operate in practice. Interviewees described school materials, including examinations printed in small type, lack of reasonable accommodation, insufficient teacher training, bullying, and insecurity during travel to and from school as factors contributing to early dropout. Even where individual teachers were supportive, systemic barriers remained.

Lack of Reasonable Accommodation in Examinations and Classrooms
Many interviewees described being unable to access examinations and classroom materials due to the absence of accommodations for low vision.

Mphatso C, a 19-year-old woman from Dedza district, said she was unable to progress after failing a national entrance examination printed in small type in 2025. "The entrance exam used tiny font like everyone else's. I told the teachers I couldn't see, but they didn't help. So I failed and they just told me to repeat the year."

Chiquniro K., 15, similarly said he failed a national exam in 2025 in part because it was not provided in large print and he was not given extra time. He said he had not been identified as a student requiring accommodation and was therefore treated the same as others.

"Enock," 19, described similar barriers. He failed Grade 8 in 2024 after being unable to read a standardized exam printed in small font and without additional time. Although he is repeating the grade, he said classroom conditions remain challenging due to difficulties seeing the board, even when seated at the front.

Stigma, Discrimination, and Exclusion in School Environments
Interviewees also described discriminatory attitudes and exclusion within classroom settings.

"Maya," 21, now a fourth-year university student, said she faced significant barriers earlier in her education due to lack of accommodation and negative attitudes from teachers:
"When I asked if they can print in larger font … they would say, 'Oh she is just lazy.'"
She said these barriers affected her academic performance and led her to leave school temporarily, completing part of her education through homeschooling.

"Glory," 26, said she dropped out after Grade 11 in 2021 due to her visual disability and lack of support: "I tried to borrow classmates' notes, but they refused … I would have to rely just on my hearing which wasn't enough." She said teachers did not consistently provide accommodations, and some offered additional help, such as tutoring, only in exchange for payment.

Agnes M., 25, described both supportive and harmful teacher responses. While some teachers provided materials and additional support, others mocked her requests for accommodation: "One teacher wrote a giant 'a' on the chalkboard … while announcing he would write the proper font for me to see. This prompted laughter with my classmate … I felt I had no support."

Their accounts indicate that, despite some developments over time, discrimination and stigma in schools persist, consistent with earlier evidence from other interviewees. "Azibo" from Mchinji, described being forced to sit at the back of the classroom and mocked when he tried to move forward to see the board before dropping out in 2013. "When I went to the front to copy the board, students shouted at me to get out of the way. Eventually, I started going during recess when no one was there." He said teachers did not intervene to stop the harassment. Leonard C., 35, who completed Grade 10, said teachers reprimanded him when he asked classmates for help reading the blackboard.

Gaps in Implementation and Inconsistent Support
Even where policies exist, interviewees described inconsistent implementation of accommodations. Rabecca Pengani, 25, a primary school teacher, said that while some progress has been made-such as allowing students with albinism to wear protective clothing and providing large-print materials for national exams-gaps remain: "Large print is provided for national exams but not for the rest of the school year … some teachers have knowledge … others don't and don't provide accommodation."

"Mtisunge," 38, a teacher with albinism who has experience supporting students with albinism, said that inclusive education remains largely nominal: "Inclusive education is just on paper … textbooks are still the same size … resources are not yet available for schools to support people with albinism." She noted that while students are now sometimes identified as having a visual disability, accommodations are inconsistently applied and often limited to national examinations.

Vocational Training as a Pathway to Economic Independence

Despite these barriers in formal education, some interviewees described vocational training as a pathway to improved employment opportunities. "Chifundo" a 48-year-old glassmaker from Lilongwe, said: "Vocational training changed my life. I built my house and car and became self-sufficient through my business."

Ellen Banda, 28, who previously traveled long distances for informal farming work, received tailoring training in 2023. "My life is improving now because of tailoring," she said. She emphasized the need for expanded services and financial support, and called on the government to strengthen teacher training and create employment opportunities for persons with albinism. Similarly, "Mariam," 19 from Machinga, said vocational training enabled her to work as a tailor after completing a four-month course and receiving a sewing machine.

Gender-Based and Intersectional Drivers of Economic Exclusion

Women with albinism experience discrimination at the intersection of gender, disability, and albinism. Stigma and gendered myths associated with albinism contribute to this discrimination, including beliefs that sexual intercourse with a woman with albinism can bring wealth, cure illness, or transfer "magic" associated with financial gain. Other barriers reflect broader patriarchal norms, such as unequal caregiving responsibilities, limited access to financial resources, and exclusion from decision-making within households and communities. In some cases, discrimination within the family further compounds these challenges such as when a father abandons their partner following the birth of a child with albinism, leaving women to bear caregiving and financial responsibilities alone. Together, these dynamics intensify economic and income insecurity by restricting women's access to education, employment, and community participation.

Reverend Greshan Dairi, a pastor with albinism who counsels families, described a recurring pattern:

Many of them are women whose husbands would have deserted them after giving birth to a child with albinism.… In some cases, the father would say 'why spend money on someone who has no future.'

He also reported intra-household discrimination, including cases where fathers deprioritize the education of children with albinism compared to their siblings.

Gendered Superstitions and Sexual Violence

According to the draft 2026 National Action Plan, the persistent belief in certain quarters that sexual intercourse with a woman with albinism can cure HIV/AIDS has been directly linked to systematic rape and sexual abuse.

Several women reported explicitly gendered myths that heighten their exposure to violence. Eliza D., 20, recounted a rape case within her community in which perpetrators invoked beliefs about albinism to justify the assault. Other myths, such as the claim that a pregnant woman must spit upon seeing a woman with albinism to prevent her child from being born with the condition, contribute to harassment, humiliation, and social exclusion, including in employment.

Interviewees also described sexual harassment and exploitation linked to harmful stereotypes about women with albinism. "Maya," 21, said that in 2025, while seeking accounting work, she was asked for sexual favors in exchange for assistance securing a job. She attributed the harassment to men's fetishization and misconceptions about women with albinism. Such incidents illustrate how gendered discrimination intersects with economic vulnerability, exposing women with albinism to coercion and abuse.

Agnes M., 25, described sexualized harassment in an educational setting: "In [Grade 11], my history teacher actually asked me, 'Has anyone told you that a sexual experience with people like you is satisfying?'" She reported the incident, and the teacher was transferred to another school. Agnes also described how harmful stereotypes contribute to exploitation within communities, including cases where women with albinism are drawn into transactional sex under economic pressure and in response to demand fueled by myths about their bodies.

"Glory," 26, said she was repeatedly subjected to harassment rooted in stereotypes. "I've heard people say about me, 'Look at that 'money' walking on the street … she is the treatment to AIDS.'" She said these comments occurred in public spaces, including markets and on her way to school, contributing to a persistent sense of fear.

These narratives demonstrate how superstition operates not only as stigma but as a driver of sexual and gender-based violence. Sexual violence and harassment disrupt education, harm mental health, and deter participation in public and economic life. Fear of attacks limits women's mobility, restricts access to markets and workplaces, and reinforces isolation, further narrowing opportunities for stable employment and income generation.

Income Insecurity and Precarious and Dangerous Work

Women described exclusion from formal employment and agricultural support programs. Mumderanji S., 25, from Dedza stated, "We don't get access to subsidy programs, fertilizers, coupons-we are never considered." Discrimination in hiring and persistent myths further restrict access to stable income and amplify existing gender inequalities.

Despite these barriers, women with albinism are often central to local economic activity, running small businesses, participating in vocational training, and mentoring younger women. However, most remain concentrated in informal and high-risk work with little protection or stability.

"Chisomo," a married mother of two and the only person with albinism in her family, survives through subsistence farming and informal trade. Although she cultivates soybeans and maize, she has been unable to access fertilizer and start-up capital. Without these inputs, her yields remain low, limiting her income and food security. During sugarcane season, she wakes at 4 a.m. to harvest sugarcane and walks an hour to the market to avoid peak sun exposure. She carries heavy loads on her head and remains at the market as long as customers arrive, sometimes returning late. Because she lacks protective equipment, shaded workspaces, or financial alternatives, she must expose herself to intense sunlight despite the heightened risk of skin cancer associated with albinism.

Chisomo's work exposes her to significant safety risks. She travels through isolated forested areas without protection, facing threats of theft and violence. Outside harvest seasons, her income becomes unstable, and at times, her family goes to sleep hungry. She seeks short-term farm labor in the early morning hours to reduce sun exposure but earns little. Despite these conditions, she has received no government assistance.

Discrimination also affects her spouse. Community members have warned her husband that marrying her places him at risk and that they will "die together" because she is hunted.

Separately, she reports that women with albinism are often treated as disposable, and men are encouraged to mistreat them. These beliefs contribute to social isolation, mental harm, and economic instability within marriage.

Chisomo also bears sole responsibility for domestic labor, including fetching water, a task that requires traveling long distances alone. Because she works early to avoid the sun, she collects water later in the day when other women have already returned home, increasing her exposure to harassment and danger. She said her husband refused to assist her, citing fear of ridicule.

Chisomo's experience reflects cumulative discrimination. Exclusion from agricultural subsidies and social protection schemes, exposure to gender-based stigma and violence, lack of workplace accommodations, and unequal domestic burdens combine to undermine her economic security and physical safety. These overlapping barriers restrict her ability to earn a stable income, protect her health, and participate equally in economic life.

International Human Rights Concerns

These patterns reflect concerns raised by international human rights bodies regarding the compounded economic marginalization of women with disabilities in Malawi. In its 2023 Concluding Observations on Malawi, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW):

• Noted the adoption of Malawi's 2022 National Job Creation Strategy, prioritizing women and persons with disabilities (para. 33).

• Observed that anti-sexual harassment workplace guidelines remain pending approval (para. 33).

• Expressed concern over high unemployment among women-particularly women with disabilities-and their limited access to formal employment (para. 33).

• Recommended targeted measures, including temporary special measures for women with disabilities and expanded social protection for women in the informal sector (para. 34(a)).

• Highlighted the lack of meaningful participation of women with disabilities in economic empowerment strategies (para. 37(b)).

• Called for their effective participation in the design and implementation of such strategies (para. 38(b)).

Recommendations

Overarching Recommendations for the Malawi Government

• Promptly implement and adequately fund the revised draft National Action Plan on Persons with Albinism (NAPPA), with clear, time-bound targets, disaggregated indicators, and dedicated budget allocations. Ensure coordination across the education, labor, and social protection sectors-and establish mechanisms for regular public reporting on progress.

• Implement recommendations from the Malawi Human Rights Commission's 2026 Barrier Analysis Impeding on Socio-Economic Empowerment of Persons with Albinism in Malawi, including in health, education, employment, social protection, and access to justice.

• Issue implementing regulations under the Persons with Disabilities Act to operationalize legal protections and clarify obligations relating to reasonable accommodation and non-discrimination in employment, including accessible complaint and enforcement mechanisms.

• Ratify the ILO Convention on Violence and Harassment (no. 190-C190) and adopt the Violence and Harassment Recommendation, 2019 (R206), to ensure protection of people with disabilities, and especially women, from violence and harassment in the workplace.

To the Ministry of Labour

• Issue a ministerial regulation under the 2024 Persons with Disabilities Act that explicitly bans discrimination based on albinism, including in recruitment, hiring, retention, and promotion.

• Incentivize inclusive hiring practices (e.g., tax credits and targeted recruitment measures) for persons with disabilities.

• Require employers, particularly in public institutions, to provide reasonable accommodations through individualized consultation with workers to identify functional needs and appropriate adjustments, including shaded work areas, sunscreen provision, flexible hours, and protective clothing where needed; issue model guidance for private employers to adopt.

• Train and hire more labor inspectors to identify discrimination and reasonable-accommodation failures, apply administrative sanctions, and raise awareness among employers and workers about the rights of persons with disabilities, including persons with albinism, under the Persons with Disabilities Act; publish inspection results.

• Extend disability-inclusive entrepreneurship grants and support for social enterprises.

• Ensure that there are steps taken to include persons with albinism in rural areas in all the policies.

To the Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs

• Allocate sufficient and predictable funding lines for the Disability Trust Fund. Ensure sustained domestic financing through clearly defined budget lines, reducing reliance on donor funding and strengthening long-term sustainability.

• Increase national budget allocations toward social security for people with disabilities, including unemployment benefits and workplace accommodations. Ensure this is in line with the obligation to use the maximum of available resources to progressively realize the right to social security.

• Design and implement fiscal incentives (e.g., tax credits/deductions) for employers who hire and retain persons with disabilities, with safeguards to prevent abuse.

• Create a small grants window for disability-inclusive microenterprise and social enterprises targeted to rural persons with disabilities.

• Grant more loans especially in rural areas for small enterprises/farming.

To the Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability and Social Welfare

• Prioritize women and girls with or impacted by albinism in social protection schemes, cash transfers, and caregiver support.

• Fund targeted psychosocial services for survivors of violence.

• Design and fund a national public awareness campaign to counter myths and stigma (traditional and social media), and promote positive role models with albinism.

• Engage traditional leaders, schools, and media to combat stigma, myths, and discrimination through community awareness and protection programs.

• Establish a social protection floor. Develop and implement a comprehensive social protection floor that guarantees basic income security across the life course, in line with international human rights standards.

• Ensure non-discriminatory access to social security. Take immediate steps to prevent discrimination in access to social security programs, including against persons with albinism. This should include clear anti-discrimination safeguards, oversight and grievance mechanisms, and accessible complaints procedures.

• Reform targeting and beneficiary selection mechanisms. Review and revise community-based targeting systems to reduce discretion, bias, and exclusion. Introduce more transparent, rights-aligned eligibility criteria, and strengthen independent verification and accountability mechanisms.

• Guarantee individual entitlements within households. Ensure that social security benefits are designed and delivered in ways that recognize individuals as rights holders.

To the Malawi Council for Disability Affairs

• Develop and issue guidelines to ensure disability-inclusive design and implementation of social protection programs, including cash transfers, in line with the Persons with Disabilities Act.

• Ensure that guidelines explicitly address the inclusion of persons with albinism, including safeguards against discrimination and exclusion in targeting and delivery mechanisms.

• Strengthen oversight and monitoring of social protection programs to ensure compliance with disability inclusion standards.

• Expand and adapt vocational skills training programs to ensure accessibility and inclusion of persons with albinism, including through targeted outreach, reasonable accommodation, and linkage to employment opportunities.

To the Ministry of Education

• Mandate and fund core accommodations for students with albinism, including large-print materials, magnifiers, tinted glasses, shaded classrooms, and sunscreen availability.

• Ensure teacher-training curricula include disability sensitivity and low-vision pedagogy.

• Reserve scholarship and targeted vocational training slots for students with albinism.

• Integrate albinism safety protocols into school safety plans, including transport security, anti-bullying policies, and rapid reporting mechanisms.

• Require schools to report disaggregated attendance, retention, and learning outcomes for students with albinism.

• Provide reasonable accommodation for teachers and educators, including teaching materials in large print.

To the Ministry of Health

• Ensure free or highly subsidized sunscreen and sun-protection supplies are stocked in district clinics; institute routine skin-cancer screening in high prevalence districts.

• Fund mobile clinics or outreach screening days targeted at communities of people with albinism.

• Train frontline health workers on albinism-sensitive care and confidentiality.

• Integrate mental health screening and referral into health services for people with albinism and build links between health services and employment/vocational programs.

To the Ministry of Justice, Attorney General, and Police Services

• Ensure thorough, impartial, transparent, and effective investigations into violations and abuses of the rights of persons with albinism, and ensure prosecution of suspected perpetrators in fair trials.

• Provide continuous training for police and prosecutors on investigating crimes against persons with albinism, including forensic response to ritual attacks and child abduction.

• Guarantee protection measures (witness protection, relocation, and secure transport for children) for victims and their families.

• Enforce the anti-discrimination provisions of the Persons with Disabilities Act, including through litigation.

To the Malawi Human Rights Commission

In line with article 33(2) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, strengthen its monitoring role with respect to implementation of the 2024 Persons with Disabilities Act and related policies affecting persons with albinism, including by:

• Systematically monitoring discrimination in employment and barriers to reasonable accommodation in both public and private sectors;

• Publishing periodic public reports assessing implementation gaps in employment, education, health, and social security;

• Establishing accessible complaints and follow-up mechanisms for persons with albinism who experience discrimination;

• Engaging organizations of persons with disabilities, including persons with albinism, in monitoring and reporting processes; and

• Recommending concrete corrective measures to relevant ministries where implementation failures are identified.

To International Donors and Development Partners

• Provide multi-year, non-conditional budget support for inclusive employment initiatives, enabling Malawi to sustain its own programs including NAPPA implementation.

• Co-finance public-private apprenticeship and on-the-job training programs targeted to persons with albinism in urban and rural sectors.

• Fund procurement of assistive devices (low-vision aids, large-print materials), sunscreen supplies, and starter grants for inclusive micro-enterprises.

• Support capacity-building for organizations of persons with disabilities, the Malawi Human Rights Commission, and district disability committees for monitoring and participation.

• Expand and safeguard fiscal space for disability inclusion, including through fair and progressive taxation, reviewing debt-service obligations to protect social spending, and ensuring adequate, sustained, and transparent funding for social security and public services.

Acknowledgments

This report was researched, written, and photographed by Samer Muscati, deputy director of the Disability Rights Division at Human Rights Watch. Additional field research was conducted by Elizabeth Kamundia, director of the Disability Rights Division; Idriss Nassah, senior researcher in the Africa Division; and Bonface Massah, executive director of the African Albinism Network, all of whom also edited the report.

Hilda Macheso, the 2025-2026 recipient of the Human Rights Watch Marca Bristo Fellowship for Courageous Leadership in Disability Rights, provided research assistance, interpretation during interviews, and logistical support.

This report was also edited by Sarah Jackson, deputy program director, who provided programmatic review, and by Clive Baldwin, senior legal advisor, who provided legal review.

The following Human Rights Watch staff provided specialist review: Sylvain Aubry, deputy director, Lena Simet, senior advisor, and Matt McConnell, researcher, in the Economic Justice and Rights Division; Michael Bochenek, senior counsel in the Children's Rights Division; and Zenaida Machado, senior researcher in the Women's Rights Division.

Federica Nucita, associate in the Disability Rights Division, assisted with desk research, fact checking, and production assistance. Katherine La Puente, senior coordinator in the Children's Rights Division, provided production assistance. Maggie Svoboda, photo editor, supported the selection and layout of the photographs. Layout, production, design, and printing were done by Travis Carr, publications manager; Jose Martinez, administrative officer; and Fitzroy Hepkins, senior administrative manager.

We express our gratitude to the Association of Persons with Albinism in Malawi, including Menard Zacharia, national coordinator, and Essau Mwale, programs officer, who shared their knowledge and expertise and facilitated interviews with community members across Malawi.

We offer our deepest thanks to Kim Samuel, The Samuel Family Foundation, and the Belonging Forum for their generous support, unwavering partnership, and steadfast commitment to the rights of people with disabilities.

Most importantly, we thank the community members we interviewed, whose courage and dignity in sharing their stories and experiences made this report possible.