3D-printed concrete – a step towards solving SA’s social housing crisis

Could 3D-printed concrete be the answer to South Africa's social housing crisis?

Nabeela Essa, a University of Cape Town (UCT) Master of Philosophy (MPhil) graduate, believes it could be. Essa, who graduated with her MPhil in Inclusive Innovation in April, said 3D-printed concrete has the power to change the lives and living conditions of millions of South Africans on the margins of society. And through her research, she was determined to prove it.

3D-printed concrete is an automated, additive manufacturing technology that extrudes specialised cement-based mixtures layer by layer to create structures directly from digital models. It eliminates the need for traditional formwork (moulds into which concrete is either pre-cast or cast in place); reduces material waste and allows for better geometric freedom in complex building structures. The process is believed to offer a cost-effective, fast-moving method for construction.

After the dust of her graduation settled, UCT News caught up with Essa for more on her research and why she believes 3D-printed concrete could be the answer to the country's social housing crisis.

Niémah Davids (ND): This research formed the basis of your MPhil. Please provide some background on that academic project.

Nabeela Essa (NE): An MPhil in Inclusive Innovation is a valuable programme that examines how innovation can be leveraged to address complex social challenges.

"South Africa's persistent social housing backlog, which now exceeds over two million units, provided the context for this study."

South Africa's persistent social housing backlog, which now exceeds well over two million units, provided the context for this study. While 3D-printed concrete has generated global interest for its potential to accelerate construction and reduce costs, there has been limited exploration of whether it is socially and institutionally viable in South Africa. Rather than focusing just on the technical feasibility, my research interrogates the social, political, economic and institutional conditions that shape whether such technologies can realistically be adapted for social housing in our context.

ND: Now let's get into the nuts and bolts of adopting the use of 3D-printed concrete for social housing. Please tell us more.

NE: Well, it's not a linear, technical rollout. It is more of a negotiated, socio-technical process. While the technology offers speed, sustainability and cost advantages, adoption is constrained by deep-rooted cultural preferences for brick-and-mortar housing; fragmented regulatory frameworks; labour concerns; and public distrust shaped by past housing delivery failures.

My research suggests that adoption requires phased and strategic development. This should all start with demonstration projects, particularly with social infrastructure such as schools and clinics. These low-risk environments will help to build trust, legitimacy and social proof. Adoption also depends on community engagement, co-design, up-skilling the current labour workforce, and coordinated policy support to ensure the technology is not considered exclusionary and to demonstrate that it doesn't pose any sort of threat to jobs.

ND: What is the goal of this work?

NE: For me, it's always been to move beyond techno-optimism and to provide a context-sensitive roadmap for inclusive innovation in housing. Rather than asking whether 3D-printed concrete can work for social housing, the research questions under what conditions it should be pursued and how it can contribute to reducing the housing backlog without undermining dignity, livelihoods or public trust. Ultimately, the study aims to inform policy makers, practitioners and researchers on how innovation can be deployed responsibly in highly unequal and politically complex contexts.

ND: This is a rather novel research undertaking. Where did the idea stem from?

NE: Honestly, the idea stemmed from both my professional exposure to the construction industry and my growing frustration with housing-delivery models in a country that prioritises speed and volume but fail communities in practice. Global narratives often portray 3D printing as a silver bullet for housing, yet adoption in South Africa remains minimal.

I really wanted to interrogate and understand why promising technologies like this one stall and whether constraints lie less in the technology itself or more in governance, labour dynamics, trust and institutional capacity.

ND: Please share your key findings.

NE: Allow me to bullet point six important findings:

• The technical promise of 3D printing alone is insufficient. Social acceptance, legitimacy and governance are absolutely crucial.
• Strong cultural attachment to brick-and-mortar housing is a major barrier.
• Fears that thousands of construction workers will lose their jobs drive resistance, especially in our context, with high levels of unemployment.
• Regulatory ambiguity, bureaucratic delays, and corruption undermine innovation diffusion.
• Adopting 3D printing appears more viable in social infrastructure and micro-residential units (backyard rental units) before personal homes.
• Adopting a staged, hybrid approach to its introduction that combines traditional and innovative methods may ease resistance.

ND: What makes this work unique?

NE: I'd like to think that this research is unique in three ways: it combines technological innovation systems analysis with a political economy imperative framework, and allows both system-level mechanics and power dynamics to be explained together; it centres the South African context and doesn't import assumptions from Global North case studies; and it draws on expert interviews with government, academia, industry and civil society - capturing how different role players interpret the risks, benefits and legitimacy of 3D printing in housing.

ND: This is fascinating work. What about it stands out for you?

NE: I'd say the fact that it treats innovation as deeply human and political and not just technical. It reframes housing innovation as a collective social endeavour shaped by trust, history and lived experience. The insights extend beyond construction and offer lessons on how emerging technologies should be introduced in unequal societies.

"It treats innovation as deeply human and political and not just technical."

I am most proud of producing a study that confronts complexity honestly. Rather than advocating for or against the technology, the research holds space for nuance and recognises both the urgency of housing delivery and the legitimate concerns of communities and the construction workforce. The research foregrounds inclusion, dignity and agency in discussions that are often dominated by efficiency narratives.

ND: If there's one thing you'd like role players to take from your research, what would it be?

NE: This research reinforces that innovation without inclusion risks reproducing inequality. In housing, where dignity, identity and security are deeply intertwined, technology must be embedded within robust governance, participatory processes and long-term accountability. If approached carefully, 3D-printed concrete could form part of a broader, more humane response to South Africa's housing crisis. But it cannot succeed in isolation.

ND: Where to from here?

NE: What's left to do now is to translate this research into practical engagement - sharing findings with policy makers, industry stakeholders and academics. There's also scope to apply the framework developed in this study to pilot projects and comparative research across the Global South, where similar adoption challenges exist.

Essa's thesis was awarded with distinction during UCT's autumn graduation. Plans to enrol for her PhD at UCT are firmly afoot.