Clean energy technologies are driving job creation in the EU, but challenges remain around skill shortages and inclusion

Selected highlights

• Wind energy is the largest employer among the technologies assessed, with an estimated 273,500 direct jobs in the EU in 2023, with 77% of them in downstream operations segment (maintenance, energy contracting and sales administration), followed by manufacturing.
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology directly employed over 227,000 people in 2023, roughly half in operations and 36% in the construction value chain segment (which includes activities such as infrastructure work, site preparation, grid connection), though EU manufacturing of solar PV remains limited.
• The heat pump sector employed an estimated 80,100 workers in 2023, mostly in the construction segment (65%), and has significant potential for further growth across the EU.
• The battery sector, though smaller at around 33,000 workers, has seen the fastest employment growth of the four technologies between 2018 and 2023, with most jobs concentrated in manufacturing, while research and development remains vital for next-generation technologies.

The clean jobs map

Inside the EU, employment in clean tech is unevenly distributed. Germany accounts for the largest absolute workforce in wind (125,000 jobs in 2023), solar PV (nearly 84,000 jobs) and batteries (12,300 jobs), though not the largest share of total employment. Portugal, Spain and Italy lead in heat pump jobs, while Hungary and Poland show the fastest employment growth in batteries.

The report notes that this concentration often reflects existing industrial strengths and skill bases. An uneven distribution could deepen regional disparities unless policy ensures broader participation across territories.

Clean jobs should be inclusive jobs

The report finds that the expansion of clean energy jobs is not automatically translating into inclusive labour markets. Women's participation ranges from 26% in wind and batteries to just 14% in the heat pump sector, while young workers (aged 15-24) made up only 6-7% of the workforce across wind, solar PV and heat pumps in 2023.

Skill shortages threaten the deployment of clean energy technologies and most Member States report gaps in critical installation- and construction-related technical roles. Coordinated policy action is needed to expand training, reskilling and workforce availability at scale.

Job quality also varies markedly between technologies and value chain segments. Wages in the heat pump sector are around 40% lower than in wind, the highest-paid of the four sectors. Operations and maintenance roles, more common in wind energy, tend to offer stable employment and stronger access to training. Construction and installation roles in solar PV and heat pumps are more project-based, more exposed to physical risks such as extreme temperatures, and offer fewer training opportunities. Battery manufacturing's impact on workers' health and safety, as well as on local communities and the environment, remains a persistent source of concern.

Policy framework

The EU has put in place an increasingly supportive policy framework to strengthen clean-tech manufacturing, accelerate deployment and address industrial bottlenecks. This includes the Clean Industrial Deal, Net-Zero Industry Act, the proposed Industrial Accelerator Act and AccelerateEU, alongside a range of financial instruments and targeted initiatives, such as the Battery Booster strategy, which supports the scale-up of EU battery manufacturing capacity.

The report calls for coordinated policy action to expand training and reskilling, alongside improvements in job quality, to attract and retain workers in a sector facing acute shortages.